WHY DO CHRISTIANS HAVE DIFFERENT BIBLES? Excerpted and amplified from the article "Why Do Christians Have Different Bibles?" TRADITIO Traditional Roman Catholic Network E-mail: traditio@traditio.com, Web: www.traditio.com Copyright 1994-2022 CSM. Reproduction prohibited without authorization. Last Revised: 01/18/23 SUMMARY Already from the fourth century the canon, or definitive list, of Sacred Scripture, the inspired books that were authentic were set. There were based not on the Old Testament books in Hebrew because the Jews had substantially lost the Hebrew language when they returned from the Babylonian Captivity in the sixth century before Christ. The version of the Old Testament that was used by the Jews in the centuries immediately before Christ and by the Christians of the New Testament, was known as the Septuagint, translated into post-classical Greek in the third century before Christ by seventy scholars (Latin: septuaginta) out of the Great Library of Alexandria in Egypt. Martin Luther expurgated seven entire books and parts of three others from his "Protestant" Bible because they didn't conform to the heretical principles of his New Religion (Protestantism) and did not suit Luther's anti-Semitism and anti-Catholicism. Luther claimed that they celebrated Judaism and because he wanted to justify his challenging the authority of the Catholic Church, he expurgated them. In fact, Luther's first German translation was missing 25 books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Esther, Job, Ecclesiastes, Jonah, Tobias, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach/Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Matthew, Luke, John, Acts, Romans, Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelation. Thus, Luther's Bible contains only 48 of the actual 73 books, or only 65 per cent of the total. The modern Protestant Bible consists of only 66 books, 39 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament. The original canon of Scripture, based upon the post-classical Greek version known as the Septuagint (properly accented on the first syllable, not the second, as it commonly heard among the uneducated), used by the Jews of the immediate centuries before Christ and by Christ and his Apostles contains 73 books including Tobias, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach/Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. OLD TESTAMENT * Included in King James Version Apocrypha + Included in Roman Catholic Deuterocanonical Books. Abbreviations are from Revised Standard Version--Catholic Edition. Abbr. KJV (39) Douay (46) ____ -------- ---------- Gen Genesis Ex Exodus Lev Leviticus Num Numbers Deut Deuteronomy Josh Joshua Josue Judg Judges Ruth Ruth 1 Sam 1 Samuel 1 Kings 2 Sam 2 Samuel 2 Kings 1 Kings 1 Kings 3 Kings 2 Kings 2 Kings 4 Kings 1 Chron 1 Chronicles 1 Paralipomenon 2 Chron 2 Chronicles 2 Paralipomenon Ezra Ezra 1 Esdras Neh Nehemiah 2 Esdras Tob Tobit* Tobias+ Jud Judith* Judith+ Esther Esther (additions*) Esther (part of +) Job Job Ps Psalms Prov Proverbs Eccles Ecclesiastes Song Song of Solomon Canticle of Canticles Wis Wisdom* Wisdom+ Sir Sirach* Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach+ Is Isaiah Jer Jeremiah Lam Lamentations Bar Baruch* Baruch 1-5+ Letter of Jeremiah* Baruch 6+ Ezek Ezekiel Ezechiel Dan Daniel Daniel Prayer of Azariah* & Song of the 3 Young Men* Daniel 3 (part of)+ Susanna* Daniel 13+ Bel & the Dragon* Daniel 14+ Hos Hosea Osee Joel Joel Amos Amos Obad Obadiah Abdias Jon Jonah Jonas Mic Micah Micheas Nahum Nahum Hab Habakkuk Habacuc Zeph Zephaniah Sophronias Haggai Aggeus Zech Zechariah Zacharias Mal Malachi Malachias Wisdom of Solomon* Wisdom of Solomon+ 1 Mac 1 Maccabees* 1 Machabees+ 2 Mac 2 Maccabees* 2 Machabees+ 1 Esdras* 3 Esdras+ (appendix) 2 Esdras* 4 Esdras+ (appendix) Prayer of Manasseh* Prayer of Manasseh+ (appendix) Psalm 151* 3 Maccabees* 3 Maccabees+ (appendix) 4 Maccabees* 4 Maccabees+ (appendix) NEW TESTAMENT (27) Mt Matthew Mk Mark Lk Luke Jn John Acts Acts of the Apostles Rom Romans 1 Cor 1 Corinthians 2 Cor 2 Corinthians Gal Galatians Eph Ephesians Phil Philippians Col Colossians 1 Thess 1 Thessalonians 2 Thess 2 Thessalonians 1 Tim 1 Timothy 2 Tim 2 Timothy Tit Titus Philem Philemon Heb Hebrews Jas James 1 Pet 1 Peter 2 Pet 2 Peter 1 Jn 1 John 2 Jn 2 John 3 Jn 3 John Jude Jude Rev Revelation Apocalypse THE JEWS AND THEIR BIBLE In order to understand Christian Bibles, it is first necessary to take a look at the Jewish Bible. It is divided into three sections: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. The Law consists of the five books of Moses (Genesis to Deuteronomy). These formed the core of the canon. "Canon" is a Greek word meaning "reed," "measuring rod." The Law, therefore, was the canon, the measuring rod by which all later works were judged for correctness. The next Jewish division of the OT (Old Testament) is the prophets. This section contains books written by prophets like Isaias, Jeremias, etc., and books telling about the activities of prophets, such as the books of Kings. The last division of the OT is the Writings, a quite diversified group, for example, Psalms, Proverbs, Ruth and the apocalyptic work of Daniel. As centuries went by, the number of books in the Writings increased. Traditional Catholics, the (traditional) Catholic Church, as usual, follows the right course. Its Bible, as represented most authoritatively by St. Jerome's Latin Vulgate, which is followed by translations such as the Douay-Rheims. The books contained in these versions are those used by Christ Himself and His Apostles. The Newchurch of the New Order often yields to the errors of Martin Luther and modern-day Protestants in their "New American Bible" and "New English Bible. It is only in the traditional Catholic Bible that all of the authentic books are preserved because the (traditional) Catholic Church is the only Church honest enough to give its followers the full Bible. WHAT IS THE SEPTUAGINT? The Septuagint (from the Latin meaning "seventy") is a Greek translation of the original Hebrew Bible, which is no longer extant, as well as of other Jewish religious writings that are no longer part of the modern Hebrew Bible, which is based upon a version edited over a millennium later by the Masoretes. Thus, the Septuagint is closer to the original Hebrew Bible than is the present-day Hebrew Bible, which is a version edited (sometimes in an anti-Christian way). The Septuagint (abbreviated by its Roman numerals LXX) is the work of several translators. It was produced in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. for Greek-speaking Jews of the Alexandrian age, as Hebrew by that time was obsolescent by that time. The LXX has more books in the section known as the Writings than the modern Hebrew Bible. The Septuagint, not the Masoretic Text, matches the Dead Sea Scrolls. The most accurate and reliable version of the Old Testament of Scriptures is the Septuagint (LXX), not the Masoretic Text of the 9th century. The Septuagint was authoritative for the Old Testament from the early Church on. WHAT BIBLE DID JESUS AND HIS DISCIPLES USE? Strictly speaking, there was no "Bible" then as we have it today. The canon wasn't closed or fixed during Jesus' lifetime. There was no authoritative list. Any scholarly, objective approach to the NT (New Testament) substantiates numerous parallels to the "extra" books contained in the Septuagint (LXX). The earliest Apostolic Fathers freely quote from the whole of the LXX as being inspired. When Jesus or the NT writers quote the Old Testament, they overwhelmingly quote the Greek Septuagint, not the modernized Hebrew rendition. WHEN DID THE JEWS CLOSE THEIR CANON? Around A.D. 100, rabbis held a Council at Jamnia, Israel. Since the Temple had been destroyed in A.D. 70, Jews needed to secure their identity, especially in opposition to Jews believing in Jesus as Messiah. It is believed that at this meeting they decided on the present-day Jewish Bible. However, the authority of such books as Esther, Proverbs, Canticle of Canticles, Ruth, Ecclesiastes and Ezekiel were challenged at the meeting and even later. Even the book of Sirach, supposedly rejected at the Council, was quoted by rabbis as inspired for centuries afterward. When any people is persecuted, it naturally re-groups and stresses its national history and language. Thus in A.D. 130, after much foreign oppression, the rabbis forbade Jews to read the Scriptures in Greek from the LXX. Jews were to read the Hebrew text only. Furthermore, Christians had been quoting the LXX to win converts; Jews could refute their arguments on the basis of a "faulty translation." By thus emphasizing Hebrew language and tradition, the rabbis preserved Jewish social identity. HOW THEN DID THE CHURCH DECIDE WHICH OT BOOKS TO ACCEPT? From A.D. 90 onward, Christian writers explicitly quote from the "extra" books of the LXX. When the NT quotes the OT, 85% of the time it is from the LXX. But in the 2nd century, as Christians debated with Jews trying to convert them, they needed to meet them on their own ground, i.e. the Hebrew canon. As certain Church Fathers stopped using the "extra" books in debates, some Christians came to doubt their inspiration. However, facts show that when these same Church Fathers taught in their own circles, they employed the full LXX. The Septuagint was accepted as the official and inspired version of the OT because of its long-standing and consistent use by the Apostles and their disciples. In 393 St. Augustine and the Council of Hippo approved the list of books as contained in the present Catholic Bible. This was likewise ratified at Carthage in 397 and 419 and by the church practices of Rome. THEN WHY DO CHRISTIANS HAVE DIFFERENT OLD TESTAMENTS? The early Christian Church was Greek-speaking; it therefore used the LXX. Even though the LXX sometimes gave different readings from the original Hebrew and had "extra" books interspersed with the rest, the early Church believed it to be inspired. "With regard to whatever is in the Septuagint that is not in the Hebrew manuscripts, we can say that the one Spirit wished to say to them through the writers of the former rather than through the latter in order to show that both the one and the other were inspired" (St. Augustine, City of God, 18:43). Hence the Orthodox Church uses only the LXX and not the original Hebrew as the official inspired OT. The LXX, compared to the Hebrew Bible, has the following additional books: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch (including the Letter of Jeremias), 1-3 Machabees, Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151, 1 Esdras, additions to Esther and Daniel, and very rarely, 4 Machabees since it was not widely available and was never considered inspired. Since the Christians in the West spoke Latin, they translated the Bible into Latin, beginning about A.D. 150. But this was first of all done from the LXX, not the Hebrew. It wasn't until the end of the 4th century that St. Jerome made a translation from the Hebrew. It was then that he discovered that the Jews had a different Bible. Believing that Jesus never used anything other that the Hebrew Bible, Jerome wished to adopt their canon. Modern historical studies have shown, however, that the Jews did in fact have these other books and read them during Christ's time. Jerome was merely ill-informed, and the Tradition of the Church prevailed. Hence the Latin Bible (known as the Vulgate) contained the same books as the LXX. Increasingly, copies of the Latin Bible dropped out 1 Esdras, 3 Machabees, the Prayer of Manasseh, and Psalm 151. Consequently, when the Catholic Church responded to Protestantism at the Council of Trent, the Latin Vulgate that was made official on April 8, 1546, did not include these four works. Protestantism, initiated by Martin Luther, accepted the Jewish canon. Like Jerome, believing that Jesus used only the Hebrew Bible, Luther excluded the additional books found in the LXX. He also rejected the role of oral tradition as being equally authoritative with Scripture. Hence he questioned the Church's right to say which books were canonical. He himself, though, repudiated Esther and James and looked askance at the Apocalypse. Had Protestantism followed Luther's preferences in the NT, Christendom would not only have different Old Testaments, but different New Testaments as well. Besides Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants having varying Old Testaments, the unfortunately forgotten and yet venerable Coptic and Ethiopian Churches include one book more than the Orthodox: the Book of Enoch. The Letter of Jude 14-15 is a direct quote from 1 Enoch 1:9. Scholarship has shown that the book of Enoch also influenced at least 15 other NT Books. It was widely used and considered inspired by numerous Church Fathers up until the 4th century. The West lost it because it was never translated into Latin. Later in the East it also fell into disuse because of some heretical misuse. Because of local church councils and differences in language, coupled later on with a lack of historical criticism and knowledge, modern Christendom now has four Old Testaments. WHAT ARE THE DISPUTED BOOKS CALLED? Whatever books of the LXX that are not part of the Hebrew Bible, the Protestants call Apocrypha, meaning "hidden." Anything outside of the LXX, Protestants call Pseudepigrapha, meaning "false writings." Catholics call the books accepted by the Jews Protocanonical, meaning the "first canon." The others listed form the Deuterocanonical books, the "second canon". All the rest they call Apocrypha. The Orthodox follow suit but have additional books in the list of Deuterocanonicals. Anything not found in the LXX is called Apocrypha. Coptics would group 1 Enoch along with the Deuterocanonical books and call any other ancient writings Apocrypha. BUT THANK GOD, WE ALL HAVE THE SAME NEW TESTAMENT! It wasn't until the end of the 5th century that all Christians had the same NT. Out of the many books in circulation, different provinces accepted various canons. The Church approved a book if it were apostolic in its origin. That doesn't mean that it literally had to be written by an Apostle, but that it was influenced by him and his followers. Tradition was primary in the formation of the canon of the Bible. Thus, the Church accepted the Gospel of Luke and Acts on the basis of Luke's being a disciple of Paul. The Gospel of Mark records the teachings of Peter. Some churches, however, did not know to whom to attribute books such as Hebrews or the Apocalypse. The East accepted Hebrews as Pauline; the West rejected it. The West accepted the Apocalypse as from the Apostle John; the East rejected it. 2 Peter and 2-3 John, James, and Jude, endured prolonged scrutiny and doubt. 1-2 Timothy and Titus faced only some questioning. Certain churches, however, accepted other works attributed to Paul. The Syrian Church accepted a third letter to the Corinthians until the 5th century. The West also employed an Epistle to the Laodiceans for a short time. But besides these writings, still others were considered inspired in various places and at different times, such as 1 Clement, the Didache, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Apocalypse of Peter, and Barnabas. HOW WAS THE PROBLEM SOLVED? The test of Apostolic Tradition was the main factor. Could the book be ascribed to some Apostle or group of disciples? Also, was the book widely used and accepted throughout all of Christendom? Hence, 1 Clement, even though internally claiming inspiration and being acclaimed as inspired by some churches, was not used everywhere and therefore was not held to be canonical. That is not to say it could not be inspired, but rather the book is not normative. Canonicity and inspiration are two different things. WHAT'S BECOME OF THESE OTHER BOOKS? The books in question are: 1 Enoch, 3 Machabees, the Prayer of Manasseh, 1 Esdras, Psalm 151, 1 Clement, the Didache, the Shepherd of Hermas, 3 Corinthians, and the Apocalypse of Peter. These works still exist today. At one time they were considered to be inspired and canonical. Some, as explained above, still are so considered. Anyone can read these and spiritually profit by them. These books are witnesses to, and help make up, what is called Tradition. They are testimonies of the Holy Spirit working in the People of God. Several inspired books are now lost and not part of the Bible. For example, the Books of Jashar (Jos. 10:13, 2 Kings 1:18), of the Prophet Nathan (3 Kings 29:29, 4 Kings 9:29), of the Prophet Gad (3 Kings 29:29), and the Scripture behind James 4:5, just to mention a few. The canon is a rule of thumb, a guideline, a measuring rod. Not everything that is inspired is in the canon; but everything in the canon is inspired. When Jesus spoke, His words were inspired and authoritative. But not all of His words were written down. That is why oral tradition is so very important. Whether one accepts the aforementioned books as canonical or not, they are still part of Tradition, which is equally authoritative. Yet they, like Scripture, are to be interpreted only within and by the one, holy, Catholic, apostolic Church, for they came forth from her. OBJECTIONS OFTEN RAISED Some reject the "extra" books because they are never quoted verbatim in the NT. In that case, however, one should also exclude Esther and Nahum, etc., for they too are never directly quoted. Others cite Apoc. 22:18 as proof that one cannot add books to or delete them from the Bible. This verse, though, applies only to tampering with the Apocalypse. Besides, the Gospel of John, 1-3 John, and 2 Peter were written after the book of Revelation was completed. WHY ARE THE PSALMS NUMBERED DIFFERENTLY IN DIFFERENT BIBLES? The traditional numbering of the psalms comes from the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old Testament that most Jews used (most had lost their facility with the Hebrew version during the Diaspora). This is the version of the Old Testament that Our Lord and the writers of the New Testament quote from. Thus, it bears an authority above the Hebrew. St. Jerome's Latin Vulgate, the Church's authoritative version, uses this traditional numbering from the Septuagint. The Douay-Rheims translation follows this practice, whereas most post Vatican II translations have reverted to the Hebrew numbering which was reintroduced with the King James Version. The numbers diverge at Psalm 9A/9B and converge again at Psalm 146/147. All references from the early Church Fathers to before the Vatican II Anti-council use the traditional numbering. DOUAY-RHEIMS VERSION During the Protestant Reformation in England, and the subsequent persecutions of Catholics in that benighted country, the faithful were compelled either to go underground or seek refuge on foreign soil. The clergy in charge of keeping alive the study of the Sacred Scriptures within the English-speaking world were among those who took flight to other shores. For their escape had become an imperative, if their work was to continue unencumbered. Among the great scholars who were forced to flee, were the Catholic Fathers of Oxford, many of whom settled at Douay in Flanders (Belgium). After the bloody persecutions in England had subsided to a degree, the faithful continued in their efforts to repel attacks by the heretics against pure doctrine. As expertise with the Latin language became a rarity among the common folk, English Catholics sought a version of the Holy Bible in their language, accurately translated from the Latin Vulgate, by which to defend the major tenets of the Faith. "The work of preparing such a version was undertaken by the members of the English College at Douay, in Flanders, founded by William Allen (afterwards cardinal) in 1568. The chief share of the translating was borne by Dr. Gregory Martin, formerly of St. John's College, Oxford. His text was revised by Thomas Worthington, Richard Bristowe, John Reynolds, and Allen himself - all of them Oxford men. A series of notes [annotations] was added, designed to answer the theological arguments of the Reformers; these were prepared by Allen, assisted by Bristowe and Worthington. "....They translated directly, not from the original Hebrew or Greek, but from the Latin Vulgate of St. Jerome. This had been declared authoritative for Catholics by the Council of Trent; but it was also commonly admitted that the text was purer than in any manuscripts at that time extant in the original languages.... "In the year 1578, owing to political troubles, the college was temporarily transferred from Douay ... to Rheims, and during its sojourn there, in 1582, the New Testament was published, and became consequently known as the Rheims Testament.... The Old Testament was delayed by want of means, until the whole Bible was eventually published in two quarto volumes, in 1609 and 1610.... Thus the New Testament appeared nearly thirty years before the Anglican Authorized Version, and although not officially mentioned [by Protestants], as one of the versions to be consulted, it is now commonly recognized to have had a large influence on the King James Version.... "The Rheims Testament was reprinted twice at Antwerp, in 1600 and 1621, and a fourth edition was issued at Rouen in 1633. Then it was allowed to rest for over a century, before a fifth edition appeared, with some slight changes, dated 1728, but without any place of publication stated. It is believed to have been printed in London and was edited by Dr. Challoner (afterwards bishop), and Father Blyth, a Carmelite. The Douay Bible was never after this printed abroad. A sixth edition of the Rheims Testament was printed at Liverpool in 1788, and a seventh dated Dublin, 1803, which was the last Catholic edition. Several Protestant editions have appeared, the best known being a curious work by Rev. William Fulke, first published in 1589, with the Rheims text and that of the Bishops' Bible in parallel columns. A Protestant edition of the Rheims Testament was also brought out by Leavitt of New York, in 1834...." (Bernard Ward, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, The Encyclopedia Press, Inc., 1908, page 140.) ======================================================================== SYNOPSES OF THE BOOKS BY THE FATHERS OLD TESTAMENT GENESIS EXODUS LEVITICUS Leviticus breaks the historical narrative in Exodus to treat the Jewish priests and their duties in regard to divine worship. Two basic understandings about the nature of God underlie this book: that God is transcendent, infinitely holy and inaccessible to man, and that God is immanent, dwelling in the midst of His people. Israel gave great importance to the external public worship of God, to atone for sins and to restore friendship with God, which sin broke. The elaborate ceremonial was intended to impress on the people's minds God's sublime holiness and man's unworthiness to enter His presence. Such ceremonial, arising from divine principles, was continued in a modified form in the ritual of the Roman Catholic Church. Five types of sacrifice were offered, by the ministry of priests. The sacrificial victims had to be unblemished, and those who shared in the sacrificial meals had to be holy and free from legal uncleanness. God asked of His people not only reverence and adoration but also a holiness of life that enabled them to live as his true children in His presence. Until the Messias would come to effect the reconciliation of man with his Creator, God wanted man to offer Him worship as His infinite majesty demanded. God, therefore, accepted the symbol of the blood of animals sacrificed to Him and the other bloodless sacrifices. Yet these sacrifices were only figures of Christ's own coming sacrifice as a spotless victim acceptable to God, restoring man to righteousness and to friendship with God. NUMBERS This book continues the narrative of the Hebrew people from the second year after they leave Egypt up to almost the end of Moses' life, the forty years of wandering in the desert. The title comes from the initial and concluding sections describing the census of the people. God commands Moses to make a census of the people to confirm His keeping of His promise to Abraham (Genesis 22:17) that his descendants would be multiplied. When Jacob entered Egypt, his family numbered 70. Now, 450 years later, the Hebrew people number around 600,000. In the first of the three parts of this book, the Hebrews are presented as a holy people through God's grace. They are divided into twelve tribes, of which the Levites, from whom the Church traditionally derives its order of deacons, have the place of honor. In the second part, the Hebrews begin their journey and, because of their resistence to God's commandment's, wander for 40 years in Canaan. In the third part, the Hebrews turn from God when they reach Moab. The events of Numbers remind us how often we too are unfaithful to God and rebel against His commandments, how often we are deflected from the search for holiness and union with God by attachment to material possessions, sensuality, and other temptations. DEUTERONOMY Deuteronomy, or Second Law, is the last of the five books of Moses known as the Pentateuch (Five Tools). When Moses is near death, God commands him to proclaim once more the Law that he received on Mount Sinai, now to a new generation of Jews. The book ends with the death of Moses and his exequies. Deuternomy is structured in three exhortations. The first assures the Jews that God constantly watches over them and that, in return, He expects fidelity to Him and to His Covenant. The second exhortation contains the laws proper, and what we know as the Ten Commandments. The Jews are to be faithful to their one true God and must love Him above all else as their Creator and Lord. The third exhortation urges obedience to God and faithful observance of the Comandments. Deuteronomy through its prophecies prepares the way for the New Covenant to come (especially 18:15-18). In its rich doctrine, Deuteronomy also lays the foundations for the teaching of the Messias, Jesus Christ. JOSUE (JOSHUA) The book of Josue (meaning "salvation") continues the religious history of Israel from the death of Moses (about the twelfth century B.C.). It chronicles the conquest of Canaan, including the famous battle of Jericho, which was taken after a seven-day siege. Josue was Moses' successor in the governance of Israel. He was a great warrior, displayed an unshakeable faith, and remained faithful to God always. As such, God allowed him what He had withheld from Moses, to lead the Israelites into the Promised Land. Spiritually, this book shows God's faithfulness to His promise to His Chosen People. That promise prefigures the New Covenant. In fact, the Josue prefigures the Our Savior, Jesus Christ, whose name in Hebrew is related to "Josue." Josue, who meditated night and day upon God's Law, remained faithful to that Law and, with God's help, built his new nation solidly upon it. JUDGES The Book of Judges drives its title from the twelve heroes of Israel whose deeds it records (ca. 1375-ca. 1050 B.C.). They were not magistrates, but military leaders sent by God to aid and to relieve His people in time of external danger. They exercised their activities in the interval of time between the death of Joshue and the institution of the monarchy in Israel. The purpose of this book is to show that the fortunes of Israel depended upon the obedience or disobedience of the people to God's law. Whenever they rebelled against Him, they were oppressed by pagan nations; when they repented, He raised up judges to deliver them. RUTH Ruth exemplifies to us the virtues of filial piety, self- sacrifice, and moral fortitutde, which God rewards a hundredfold. Even though Ruth was not of Chosen People, yet God favored her with a marriage to Booz, an influential man of Bethlehem. Thus, she became an ancestress of David and therefore of Christ, demonstrating that salvation was not to be reserved only to the Jews, but came to the Gentiles as well. Most of the book consists of dramatic dialogue, although there is no indication that the events it relates are not true history. 1 KINGS (1 SAMUEL) In this book, and its successor, we read the history of the foundation of the kingdom of Israel and the establishment of David and his line on the throne. God uses Samuel, the last of the Judges, to bring about the unification of the tribe of Israel to meet the treat of the Philistines. Under Saul, the first king, God assists the Israelites to best the Philistines, but not to achieve total victory. Although the genius of David pulls the tribes together, they still had differences that would later resurface. The north and the south, united under David, would later divide permanently under David's son, Solomon. During this period, as in the period of the Judges, the Israelites often fail to stay loyal to God. 2 KINGS (2 SAMUEL) This historical book centers upon King David and the momentous events of his early reign: the civil war; the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem, which David makes his capital; and the messianic promise that an eternal throne will be given to one of David's lineage. Yet this period of triumph comes to an end with David's double sin -- his adultery with Bethsabee and his arranging the death of her husband Urias -- followed by his son Absalom's conspiracy and death. Yet as David sincerely repents for his sins and changes his life completely, God displays His mercy and forgiveness. David, the progenitor of the dynasty that will eventually lead to the Messias, was one of the most humble and devout personalities in the Old Testament. His sense of devotion led him to take particular care of everything to do with the worship of Almighty God, even to old age. When he fell into great sin, he was instinctively led to repentance and atonement. In these virtues we can imitate the great King. 3 KINGS (1 KINGS) This book continues the history of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel from the last days of King David (ca. 970 B.C.) and the succession of his son, Solomon, whose initial drive and intelligence fade into neglect of divine worship. After Solomon's death the northern and western tribes permanently split. We are also introduced in this book to the prophet Elias, who preaches a return to fidelity to God and his worship against that of pagan idols. On Mount Horeb this greatest of the non-writer prophets (no book of Scripture is directly attributed to him) receives an adumbration of the God-Child, full of goodness and mercy, Who will be born at Bethlehem. God had established one valid Temple and a priesthood for his worship. The Israelite kings of this period are condemned because instead of maintaining the divinely-revealed worship, they established rival shrines in opposition to the Temple and, in contravention to the Covenant, failed to suppress the "high places" of the pagan god Baal. 4 KINGS (2 KINGS) The two kingdoms of Israel, now divided into Samaria in the north and Judah in the south, war against each other. The Assyrians attack and invade beginning in the ninth century. Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom, falls in 721 B.C., and Jerusalem itself finally falls to the Assyrian King Nabuchodonosor in 587. The Temple is destroyed, and the Jews are deported to begin their "Babylonian Captivity." Thus we are taught how high the price is for falling away from the established worship of God. The Jews fell from the divinely-instituted worship in the Temple and began to worship Baal at pagan shrines. God kept his word; it is Israel that was faithless. This book is a statement of divine justice. God's judgment is justified and blameless. He deals with unfaithfulness to His Covenant as He promised. 1 PARALIPOMENON (1 CHRONICLES) The title of the next two books comes from the fact that they contain things "left out" (Greek: paraleipomenon) of the books of Kings. They repeat and expand upon the sacred history contained in the earlier books and were probably written in the second half of the third century B.C. The early chapters of the first book give a summary of salvation history of the long period from the start of mankind up to the Babylonian exile of the 6th century B.C. It includes the period up to King David, as well as the history of King David's reign. In the spiritual sense, this book teaches that the continued existence of Israel depended upon the people's faithfulness to the Covenant. This faithfulness means keeping God's commandments and seeing meticulously to His worship. When the people became faithless, they suffered exile and the domination of the pagan nation of Babylon and its king Nabuchodonosor. 2 PARALIPOMENON (2 CHRONICLES) This book continues the account of things "left out" (Greek: paraleipomenon) of the books of Kings. It continues the account of the First Book of Paralipomenon by continuing the summary of salvation history from the period of King Solomon's reign, the start and finish of the building of his Temple, the religious reforms introduced to counter disorder and anarchy, the fall of Jerusalem, and finally the Babylonian exile (597 B.C.). It concludes with the return of the Jews to Judea by the leave of Cyrus, King of the Persians (538 B.C.). The spiritual message of this book is one religious obligation, that God requires holiness in His worship, not only from His ministers but also from the people at large. The new Israel will consist of the "remnant" who remained faithful during the Babylonian exile. The faithful members of the twelve tribes, as well as pagan nations, will obtain access to the true faith. 1 ESDRAS (EZRA) 2 ESDRAS (NEHEMIAH) TOBIAS (TOBIT) JUDITH ESTHER JOB PSALMS PROVERBS ECCLESIASTES CANTICLES OF CANTICLES (SONG OF SOLOMON) WISDOM ECCLESIASTICUS ISAIAS (ISAIAH) JEREMIAS (JEREMIAH) LAMENTATIONS BARUCH EZECHIEL (EZEKIEL) DANIEL OSEE (HOSEA) JOEL AMOS ABDIAS (OBADIAH) JONAS (JONAH) MICHEAS (MICAH) NAHUM HABACUC (HABAKKUK) SOPHONIAS (ZEPHANIAH) AGGEUS (HAGGAI) ZACHARIAS (ZECHARIAH) MALACHIAS (MALACHI) 1 MACHABEES 2 MACHABEES NEW TESTAMENT ST. MATTHEW ST. MARK ST. LUKE St. Luke, a physician from Antioch, wrote the third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles, probably before the middle of the 60's. Although not an eyewitness of our Lord's life, he had ready access to those who did, most especially the Blessed Virgin Mary. A man of culture, his Greek is the best among the evangelists, particularly suitable for addressing his Gentile audience. St. Luke's Gospel is best known for its unique inclusion of the narrative of Christ's infancy, of which the Pontifical Biblical Commission (June 26, 1912), countering modernistic notions in vogue at that time (and this) wrote: "[It is] not lawful to doubt the inspiration and authenticity of Luke's narrative of Christ's infancy." St. Luke's Gospel covers many great themes in the plan of Redemption. He emphasizes the continuity of the work of salvation begun by God in the Old Testament and brought to fulfillment in the New. He stresses the offering salvation to all men, structuring his Gospel by the life of Christ to proclaim the mercy and forgiveness of God. He urges us to imitate Christ in the Christian virtues and prayer, and portrays the Blessed Virgin to us as our great help. ST. JOHN St. John, brother of St. James the Greater and originally a disciple of St. John the Baptist, is the author of the fourth Gospel. This gospel has a vivid eyewitness quality, as St. John was present with only his brother and St. Peter at some of the most significant events of Our Lord's life, such as the Transfiguration and the Agony in the Garden. He alone of all the apostles was present at the foot of the cross on that Good Friday. His gospel seeks to strengthen the faith of the young Church in Asia Minor. It focuses on the central truth that Jesus Christ is the Son of God made man. The sublime prologue, which is usually used as the Last Gospel at Holy Mass, is a summary of the entire teaching of Our Lord's divinity and mission. The first part of the gospel presents Our Lord as the promised Messias by recounting a number of miracles that only God Himself could work. The second part of the gospel presents the final and most significant events of Our Lord's life, the realization of the plan of salvation. Finally, St. John's gospel contains our most detailed information about the events of the Resurrection as the ultimate confirmation of the faith and the foundation of the Church. THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES The Acts of the Apostles provides us with perhaps our most important account of the apostolic origins and Tradition of the Church. Written by St. Luke, who was a companion of St. Paul on some of his missionary journeys recorded here, this book was probably written in Rome shortly before the Great Fire in A.D. 64 that the Roman Emperor Nero used as an excuse to initiate the first official persecution of the Christians. The Acts of the Apostles documents the rapidity of the Church's expansion after the Ascension, particularly among the Gentiles (non- Jewish peoples), to whom St. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, brought the Gospel. It is a kind of "Fifth Gospel," expounding the first apostolic teaching. Some of the important teachings elaborated in the Acts of the Apostles are: (1) that Christ was the Messias and Son of God; (2) that the Holy Spirit is a separate person of the Holy Trinity, who sanctifies; (3) that the Church founded by Christ is open to the Gentiles, as well as the Jews, without further observance of the Mosaic Law. It addition, the Acts of the Apostles provides us with a glimpse into the life of the early Christians and models of the Christian life for us to imitate in our own times. ST. PAUL TO THE ROMANS St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans is given the position of honor at the beginning of all the New Testament Epistles. It was written at Corinth during the winter of A.D. 57-58, at the close of St. Paul's missionary journey. During this period of his missionary activity, St. Paul had widely covered the eastern territories and was looking for new territories to evangelize in the West. For this purpose he wished to go to Rome, then Spain. In this epistle St. Paul informs the Romans of his intended visit and discusses the great Christian religious principle of justification by faith, as well as the relation of the new Christian religion to the Mosaic (Jewish) religion. He takes advantage of the opportunity of his impending trip to Rome to set forth a detailed defense of his doctrine, which he writes not just for the Romans, but ultimately for all the Christian communities throughout the world. He argues for the superabundant power of God to save those who have faith in Christ, which the Jews have rejected. He concludes his argument with a presentation of the duties of Christians: humility, charity, self-denial, patience, and mercy. 1 CORINTHIANS Like so many large cities today, Corinth in biblical times was materially prosperous, but had fallen into deep moral corruption. St. Paul preached to the Jews and Gentiles of Corinth for two years, leaving thence about A.D. 52. Because he made many converts, the Jews began to persecute the Apostle to the Gentiles with increasing fervor. This first Epistle is attributed to the beginning of A.D. 57, a date that places its doctrinal and liturgical statements earlier than all of the Gospels except St. Matthew's. It gives us an insight into how developed the essentials of the traditional Mass were by this time, not even thirty years since the Ascension of Our Lord. In fact, St. Paul wrote this Epistle specifically to address erroneous doctrine and liturgical practices that had arisen in the church at Corinth since his departure five years previous. 2 CORINTHIANS St. Paul had already had to send one severe letter to the Corinthian Christians, upbraiding them for sin, heresy, and unChristian practices. Now, about the year 57, St. Paul sends to the Corinthians a second highly personal, highly forceful epistle. St. Paul defends his life and ministry against his critics and strongly asserts his authority as a true apostle of Christ, attested by extraordinary visitations from heaven and by his unparalleled labors and sufferings to spread the Gospel. This epistle gives us an insight into how many critics even the great Apostle to the Gentiles had and into how erroneous doctrine and practices had arisen in the Church at Corinth, not even thirty years after the Ascension of Christ. GALATIANS This letter speaks to our own time with truths of our Faith that are 2000 years old. St. Paul had preached the Gospel at Galatia in Asia Minor (roughly in central Turkey now). After he left, false teachers in authority in the community, although they operated under the name of "Christian," instead were teaching erroneous doctrine and calumniating St. Paul's apostleship. Some 30 years after the Church was founded, St. Paul, vehemently rebuts the calumnies and stands uncompromisingly for Tradition, saying: "But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel to you other than that which we have preached to you, let him be anathema! As we said before, so now I say again: If any one preach a gospel to you other than that which you received, let him be anathema! For am I now seeking the favor of men, or of God? Or am I seeking to please men? If I were still trying to please men, I should not be a servant of Christ" (Galatians 1:8-10). So important is Tradition that St. Paul does not hesitate even to upbraid St. Peter, the first pope, for violating it: "But when Cephas [Peter] came to Antioch, I withstood him to his face because he was deserving of blame" (Galatians 2:11). That is the supreme importance of Sacred Tradition, upon which, with Sacred Scripture, the Catholic Church is built. To it, even popes must submit, and be corrected if they do not. EPHESIANS This epistle was written by St. Paul toward the close of his first imprisonment in Rome, in the year A.D. 63, and carried thence to Asia Minor. Ephesus, then the chief city of western Asia Minor, had been evangelized by St. Paul about A.D. 53-56. The great majority of converts in this territory were from among the pagan Gentiles; the Jews formed only a small minority. St. Paul's main purpose in this epistle is to explore the great mystery of the Redemption, of which Christ Himself is the cornerstone, the foundation of the entire spiritual building. The letter is divided into two main parts. The dogmatic section (1:2-3:21) regards the Church as the mystical body of Christ, through which Christ, its head, generously pours out the divine life of grace to its members. Both Jews and Gentiles are called, without distinction, to make up one body, the new people of God, the Church. The ethical section (4:1-6:9) emphasizes the spiritual, organic unity of the members of the Church with Christ and with one another. This is the basic principle of the life of the mystical body. St. Paul exhorts Christians to live one and the same Faith and to lead the new life that befits those incorporated into the unity of the mystical body. PHILIPPIANS At Philippi, named after Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, St. Paul founded the first Christian church in Europe on his second missionary journey around the year A.D. 51. The saint himself lived at Philippi for some years. In this letter St. Paul encourages the Philippians, who reciprocated his affectionate regard and supported his work, to be even better athletes of Christ, keeping their eyes always upon the goal of pursuing holiness, just as the runner in a race keeps his eye on the goal and does not look back. St. Paul recommends to the Philippians the Christian virtues of charity, unity, and humility. On the other hand, he exoriates those who teach a false Faith, calling them "enemies of the cross of Christ" (3:18). For these he predicts destruction. COLOSSIANS St. Paul, from his imprisonment at Rome, had been informed that erroneous doctrines were circulating in the Church at Colossae, which compromised the Christian doctrine of Christ's supreme mediation for us. St. Paul in this epistle corrects the Colossians' errors and restates for them Christ's absolute supremacy as God: "in him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily" (2:9[C]). Divinity and humanity are united in Him. St. Paul also describes here the nature of the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ. Through His sacrifice on the Cross, Christ has become the universal mediator, reconciling men to God. Thereby He is the supreme head of the Church: "he is the head of his body, the Church" (1:18[C]). Since we share in the life of the risen Christ and His Church, we are called upon to reject worldly living and focus on the Christian virtues, to "mind the things that are above, not the things that are upon the earth" (3:2). This is the insightful epistle in which St. Paul advises on the proper relation of husband to wife, and father to child. Indeed, there is much in this short epistle to teach us of the essence of our relationship as Christians first to God, then to neighbor. 1 THESSALONIANS Thessalonica was one of the most important cities in the Roman province of Macedonia. It had a very busy port, strategically located on the main highway between Rome and its eastern provinces, which attracted Greeks in search of employment. Moreover, it had a sizeable Jewish community with its own synagogue. Only a few of the Jews accepted the Gospel from St. Paul's preaching, but many Greeks became Christians, including several of the leading women. Here St. Paul was persecuted and had to flee the city by night. He writes this epistle to defend his mission as of divine calling and to counter those who acted against him out of greed and vanity. He insists upon the responsibility of everyone to work, speaking against the tendency of too many in the city to depend upon the welfare of others and to become a burden on the Christian community. Thus, St. Paul teaches that able-bodied men have the obligation to work (4:11), not to rely on charity. St. Paul followed this practice in his own example when he visited Christian communities and engaged in his occupation of tent- making so as to support himself and not become a burden to the Christian community (2:9). He preaches the apostolic doctrine of the resurrection of the dead and advises Christians not to worry about the endtimes, "for yourselves know perfectly that the day of the Lord shall so come as a thief in the night" (5:2). 2 THESSALONIANS 1 TIMOTHY 2 TIMOTHY TITUS PHILEMON TO THE HEBREWS THE EPISTLE OF ST. JAMES 1 ST. PETER 2 ST. PETER 1 ST. JOHN 2 ST. JOHN 3 ST. JOHN ST. JUDE THE APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN THE APOSTLE (REVELATION)